论后代人作为环境权主体的不合理性

国外社会和一些国家已经对环境权有了明确的立法,对后代人作为环境权主体给予了最权威的认可。即赋予未出生的人类后代以享受美好环境的权利,从而以此权利来限制现世人的行为及附加义务。我国环境法发展的近几十年中,法律并没有对环境权进行明确规定。近年受国外环境法学的影响,我国很多学者基于代际公平理论也将后代人也列为环境权主体。虽然此理论开创了新的视角,丰富了环境权主体的内容。但其有违法学的基本概念,缺乏现实性和可行性,难以让人信服。     

对魏伊丝代际公平说的全面反思

为保护地球环境资源而创设的代际公平理论是建立在两个错误认识的基础上的,即把集合概念的人类视为类概念的人类和把地球环境资源财产化。假如没有后代人,人们也同样应该承担保护地球环境的义务。魏伊丝舍今世而求助于后代人及其权利,其原因在于权利时代所型塑出来的权利思维模式和路径依赖。虽然代际公平理论能够给我们提供观察和解决环境问题的时间视角,但它本身并不是什么新的法律理念,无法担负起指导现代环境法制建设和环境保护实践的重任。     

后代人权利：何种权利？——一种权利视角的考察

＂后代人权利＂直接保护的对象是地球环境,而不是后代人的人身和财产利益;与地球环境这一权利客体相对应的＂后代人权利＂的真实主体是整个人类,而不是所谓的后代人;并且,＂后代人权利＂的重心及其实现都在于人们普遍承担的环境保护义务。如果从权利视角观之,＂后代人权利＂实质上就是人类整体对地球环境所享有的权利,即人类权利,而非＂后代人＂的权利。认清＂后代人权利＂的人类权本质,对环境法理论的完善和可持续发展实践都具有极其重大的意义。     

回顾与反思:后代人权利论源流考

全球性环境危机和各种环境保护思想为后代人权利理论提供了目的性的环境要素,二战以后自由主义思想的复兴直接为后代人权利理论输送了工具性的权利要素,在此基础上,后代人权利理论得以产生。后代人权利理论在全球环境危机的话语背景下逐步从理论主张向实践领域延伸,在世界范围内产生了广泛的影响。后代人权利理论的发展具有四个方面的逻辑内涵,而要获得进一步的发展,还有许多问题亟待人们去解决。     

以环境公共利益为保护目标的环境权利理论——从“环境损害”到“对环境本身的损害”

环境损害既包括对环境本身的损害,也包括经由环境污染造成的人身和财产损害。以环境损害为救济对象的各种公民环境权利理论,不能为环境权利的独立存在提供正当理由,因而也遭到公益权论者和人类权论者的怀疑和批评。理论上,环境权利仅仅旨在维护和增进环境公共利益,预防和减少对环境本身的损害。以环境公共利益为保护目标的环境权利理论,可以为环境权利的独立存在提供正当理由,因而也可以回应公益权论者和人类权论者的质疑和批评。这种理论既可以区分公法上的环境权利和现有的各种人权,也可以区分私法上的环境权利和现有的环境人格权、环境相邻权、环境侵权。     

环境权新探

环境权是一项基本人权,无需许可,不能剥夺,不可让渡,而环境开发利用权属于一种财产性权利,通常需经许可而取得,其行使须遵循特定程序,因此环境开发利用权不属于环境权的内容。由于后代人具有范围和时间上的不确定性,不宜将后代人纳入环境权的主体范围,但视后代人环境权利为一种道德权利则是可取的。同时环境权利与环境义务在环境法律关系中的错位以及权利与义务在主体间分配的不均衡性表明环境权不能既是权利又是义务,环境权主体并非环境权利和环境义务的统一体。     

环境时代宪法的权利生态化特征

文章首先指出无论是近代宪法的法理基础———个人主义 ,还是现代宪法的法理基础———团体主义 ,都难以对付当前日益严重生态危机的挑战 ,主张可在团体主义的基础上将生态主义作为环境时代宪法的法理基础 ;而后 ,文章通过对传统宪法价值取向在环境时代所表现出种种局限的反思 ,提出环境时代宪法的价值取向———当代人与后代人 ,人与自然 ;最后 ,文章认为随着环境时代宪法法理基础———生态主义的建立和宪法价值取向———当代人与后代人 ,人与自然的确立 ,宪法将在权利社会化的基础上向权利生态化扩展 ,并围绕“人类和生态共同利益”之保护而精心构建 ,从而极具权利生态化的特征。     

虚妄的代际公平——以对人类概念的辨析为基础驳“代际公平说”

集合概念的人类与类概念的人类是两个性质不同且极易混淆的概念。人类环境危机语境中的人类是集合概念的人类,这个人类的环境也是整体的地球环境。代际公平理论建立的基础是集合概念的人类以及这种人类的地球环境。集合概念的人类是一个整体,无法承受"代"的分割,地球环境也不是可供继承的财产。代际论者构筑的多个人类并存并以地球环境为继承对象的理论既不合乎逻辑,也不符合客观事实,是荒诞的理论虚构。     

再论新兴(型)权利的证成标准：对应义务验证说

权利泛化现象对权利观念的可能危害，要求必须尽快构建科学的新兴(型)权利证成标准。根据权利义务统一性命题，新兴(型)权利必然对应有相应义务。以此为基础的“对应义务验证说”认为，一项权利是否成立可能存在不休争论，但若转化为“该权利所对应义务是否应当成立”,就有可能引导论者超越价值情感纠葛对新兴(型)权利主张是否成立形成较为清晰的内心确证。这更有利于论者进一步认识权利的必然义务成本，从而更为理性和审慎地对待新兴(型)权利主张。     

试论代际生育平等权的社会权属性

代际生育平等权是指由于国家政策和法律对公民生育权的限制,导致不同代的公民生育权的不平等,因而其享有要求国家构建科学合理的保障与救济制度的权利.发生学视角下,代际生育平等权与社会权一样,皆以外在的“剥夺”为发生前提;保障方式上,两者皆有“明知不可为而为之”的特点,强调国家作为义务和贯彻“物质优先原则”;在权利主体方面,两者也具有相似性,即理论预设上两者的权利主体皆是全体公民,而现实权利主体却是部分公民.代际生育平等权具有社会权属性,是社会权子类型之一,这种界定极具现实意义.     

Residence patterns of the elderly in early eighteenth-century Iceland

In this article the 1703 Icelandic census is used to shed light on the living arrangements of the elderly during a period of harsh climatic and social conditions. The census is unique in the sense that it includes an entire population of a country at an early date. It was taken on the initiative of the authorities in Denmark with the objective of examining the dire conditions of the Icelandic population and, in particular, assessing the number of paupers and vagrants. The census therefore provides interesting possibilities to analyse the situation of the most vulnerable groups of the society. In a society with low nuptiality rates and a low sex ratio, the risk of becoming dependent on poor relief increased with age. Elderly persons who were not able to retire in the household of an offspring ran the risk of spending their last years as paupers. In the 75 and older age group, no less than 43.5% of women were in the position of a pauper. In line with other recent studies on intergenerational co-residence, this study indicates that the elderly preferred to co-reside with their offspring. Even though elderly couples preferred to remain in the position of head of household, most would co-reside with their children. As regards widowed persons, there were noticeable differences between elderly men and women. Elderly widows were thus more likely than widowers to resign from headship on entering widowhood in order to retire in the household of one of an offspring.     

Justice and intergenerational relations: An introduction

Gerontologists have rarely considered the concept of social justice in their research. Instead, related but more specific questions about the social situation of the aged have been posed. This paper provides an overview of existing social psychological literature on justice and intergenerational relations as a context for the five other papers contained in this issue. The importance of intergenerational justice within the family, particularly when there is a caretaking relationship, is stressed. As well, the policy implications of a concern with intergenerational justice are considered. The Paper concludes with a recommendation that gerontology and social justice research be integrated more frequently in order to enrich both fields of study.     

The effects of marital breakdown on offending: results from a prospective longitudinal survey of males

Abstract

We examined the factors that predicted marital separation in the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, which is a prospective longitudinal survey of 411 London males. We found that dishonesty, having a wife with a conviction(s), convictions, a poor relationship with parents, no exams passed, unprotected sex and having a shotgun marriage predicted marital breakdown. Males from broken homes due to marital conflict had a moderate risk of suffering marital breakdown themselves but the effect was mediated by having conviction(s). An analysis in which separated men were matched with controls on age at marriage, prior convictions and a propensity score predicting the likelihood of separation showed that a man's convictions increased after becoming separated. However, if a man formed a new intimate relationship, the increase in convictions after separation was reduced.     

Attitudes and Family Violence: Linking Intergenerational and Cultural Theories

Drawing on intergenerational transmission and cultural (attitudinal) theories, this study examines the extent to which attitudes help explain (1) the relationship between experiencing violence while growing up and subsequent violence against one amp apose;s children and spouse, and(2) demographic differences in violence. Structural equation modeling techniques are used to examine data from a representative sample of the general population and a sample of ex-offenders. The findings indicate that experiencing violence while growing up is related to favorable attitudes towards violence against spouses. The experience of violence while growing up and attitudes are related to violence against both children and spouses. The relationship between experiencing violence while growing up and engaging in violence against spouses is mediated by attitudes. The results also suggest that men and nonwhites are more approving of violence towards spouses. However, attitudes do not account for demographic differences in violence against children and spouses.     

Effects of Parental Substance Abuse on Current Levels of Domestic Violence: A Possible Elaboration of Intergenerational Transmission Processes

Research conducted on the intergenerational transmission of domestic violence has framed much of its inquiry from within the context of social learning theory. Although consistently significant, the effect size of social learning-derived intergenerational transmission variables is often small. This study was undertaken in an effort to broaden the theoretical basis of intergenerational transmission of family violence by assessing if incorporating parental substance abuse variables with exposure to violence in family of origin would increase the predictive power of a multiple regression model. Subjects (N = 74) were men in treatment for domestic violence. Paternal substance abuse was found to exert effects on respondents' violent behavior comparable to those from exposure to family of origin violence. Findings supported a need to broaden theoretical views of the etiology of domestic violence perpetration.     

Justice in old age: An analysis of corporatist social theory

It is sometimes argued that a tacit contract exists between the generations in industrial society that requires that the present structure of Social Security benefits not be altered in any way that would serve to diminish the present benefit levels. The demands of social justice, it is thought, require that Western societies maintain their commitments to Social Security programs, especially to those programs of the type administered in the United States. This paper examines questions of justice pertaining to the aged in contemporary society. It is argued here that the demands of justice pertain not only to the satisfaction of basic needs for subsistence but also to the satisfaction of the need for self-realization. The commitment of capitalist nations like the U.S. to social justice for the aged is analyzed using a theory of justice that is based on Durkheim's political writings on corporatism and the solidarist theory of the Catholic social movement. The corporatist theory of justice would require that public pension systems like Social Security be revised to provide more adequately for the social needs of the working-class aged.     

The impact of timing and frequency of parental criminal behaviour and risk factors on offspring offending

This paper explores mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of criminal behaviour by investigating specifically the timing and frequency of the parents' criminal behaviour while including risk factors for criminal behaviour. The results demonstrate a dose–response relationship: parents' number of criminal convictions is positively related to offspring's conviction rate. Furthermore, children whose parents had only been convicted before the child's birth have more convictions than those whose parents had never been convicted. Children whose parents had been convicted after the child's birth have more convictions than those whose parents had only been convicted before the child's birth, but this difference can be explained partly by the observation that the latter group had fewer risk factors for crime. When parental convictions at different ages were examined, children whose parents had been convicted between their 7th and 13th birthdays exhibit more criminal behaviour than children whose parents were convicted in other periods, but none of the differences were significant. There does not appear to be a sensitive period for the impact of parental criminal behaviour. The results demonstrate support for static as well as dynamic explanations of intergenerational transmission such as the transmission of a criminogenic environment and/or mediation through risk factors.     

Continuing education: Toward a life-course perspective on social learning

Sutherland's differential association theory and the life-course perspective have at times been conceptualized as contrasting theories of criminal behavior. I argue instead that our understanding of delinquency, the dynamics underlying criminal persistence and desistance, and intergenerational patterns will be enhanced by a more explicit integration of these two traditions. I focus on family processes as these are foundational intimate relationships that remain underappreciated as a source of lifelong learning and influence. Although family support and variations in parental supervision have been amply investigated, “direct transmission” takes place within the family as well as within the confines of the more heavily studied world of adolescent peer groups. I identify five dimensions of direct transmission and illustrate these dynamic processes with qualitative data from two longitudinal studies and results of recent quantitative analyses. The analysis is generally in line with Sutherland's original formulation but includes several extensions and modifications. It is important to include a role for human agency, and for “noncriminal” definitions and lifestyle factors, in addition to the directly criminogenic definitions Sutherland and subsequent researchers have emphasized. The focus on social processes is, however, consistent with Sutherland's goal of highlighting limitations of psychological and biological differences explanations.     

Factors Mediating the Link Between Witnessing Interparental Violence and Dating Violence

The present study examined several protective and vulnerability factors in a subsample of adolescents who witnessed high levels of interparental violence to determine what factors differentiated adolescents who inflicted (and received) violence in their dating relationship and those who had violence-free dating relationships. Findings revealed that males who witnessed high levels of interparental violence, who inflicted violence in their dating relationships, were differentiated from those who had violence-free relationships by the following variables: low socioeconomic status, exposure to community and school violence, acceptance of violence in dating relationships, and low self-esteem. Low socioeconomic status and acceptance of violence in dating relationships differentiated males who experienced dating violence and those who had not. With regard to females, exposure to community and school violence, poor school performance, and experiencing child abuse differentiated those who inflicted dating violence from those who had not, while poor school performance and experiencing child abuse differentiated females who experienced dating violence and those who had not. Implications of the findings are discussed.