Regional energy cooperation in North East Asia: Lessons from the European Experience

The three major oil importing countries of Northeast Asia—China, Japan and South Korea—are concerned about future security of energy supplies to fuel their dynamic economic activity. Currently all three countries are highly dependent on imports of oil from the Middle East, a region with inherent political instability. Russia’s rich reserves of oil and gas in Eastern Siberia and the Russian Far East offer an obvious alternative. Given the geographical proximity of Russia and its desire to increase its energy exports to Northeast Asia, there is huge potential for cooperation. So far there has been no real intra-regional cooperation and no common external policy towards Russia. Despite obvious differences between Europe and North East Asia, the European model of energy cooperation, developed over the past 50 years, offers some useful lessons.

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The European defence plans: Filling the transatlantic gaps

The geographic proximity of Central Asia to Russia, China, the Caucasus and the Caspian region, as well as to the Middle East, makes this oil and gas-producing region a crucial and ever-developing player in regional and global energy markets. The method by which Central Asian producers choose to develop their hydrocarbon resources and export infrastructure will have significant implications for the plans for diversification of oil and gas supplies of Europe, China and India, as well as for Russia's energy exports to Europe. It is still too early to tell whether the economic and political incentives are strong enough to promote cooperation between the various actors or whether the energy interests of these key external powers are so diverse as to clash in Central Asia.     

美国的中东石油战略与中国能源安全

对于中国和美国这两个石油进口与消费大国来说,有世界油库之称的中东的战略地位不言而喻,但美国的中东石油战略实质上是一种霸权战略。美国这种霸权稳定论下的石油安全观及其中东石油战略,不仅排斥和谐世界理念下的中国和平发展石油安全观,而且成为引发或激发中东政治与石油形势动荡的深层根源之一。美国对中东石油霸权战略的实施和推进,对中国以商业原则与和平方式安全而稳定地获取中东石油形成了严重的制约和挑战。     

俄罗斯经济快速增长的因素分析及2008年预测

2006年俄罗斯经济保持稳定增长态势。2007年俄罗斯的经济形势总体上可以概括为:经济继续稳定增长,增速进一步提高。由于宏观经济环境整体性得到改善,经济增长的内需导向型发展进一步加强,国内经济的基本因素在经济增长中起主导作用,这是俄多年来改革和调整措施逐步生效的结果。为转变增长方式,政府在经济生活中的作用继续增强。受能源供给增长乏力的限制,2007年俄罗斯出口增幅趋缓的趋势不会改变,进口增速远远高于出口增速成为2007年的显著特征。但国际高油价的利益驱动仍会使俄罗斯不断增加石油生产和出口,同时"黑色金子"也是推进俄内需作用扩张的重要基础。值得关注的是金融对经济增长的拉动作用开始显现。我们乐观地认为,2008年俄罗斯继续保持稳定的增长势头。     

90年代国际产业竞争对日本经济的影响

20世纪80年代末90年代初,随着冷战的结束,贸易自由化、全球化蓬勃发展,各国纷纷加强国家干预,努力提高本国产业的国际竞争力。美国政府采取扶植战略性产业、"国家出口战略"等政策措施,使美国产业的国际竞争力明显提高。欧洲工业经过革新,在传统工业和新型工业上再次位居世界前列。随着东亚产业竞争优势的出现,日本不但在传统产业而且在高技术产业上面临东亚等新型工业化国家的激烈竞争。因此,90年代美欧以及东亚产业竞争力的提高,导致日本产业竞争力相对下降,对外出口增长缓慢,日本国内出现产能过剩,从而加剧了日本经济的衰退。     

俄罗斯东部地区：日本石油进口战略的新视点

日本既是世界经济大国,也是世界能源消费大国和能源进口大国之一,长期以来日本的石油供给一直主要依赖中东地区。美国占领伊拉克后,中东地区将更加动荡,这将给日本石油稳定的供给带来极大的威胁,进一步开展对俄能源合作已是大势所趋。     

Study on Xinjiang’s bilateral trade using a gravity model

Based on the basic trade gravity model and Xinjiang’s practical situation, new explanatory variables (GDP, GDPpc and SCO) are introduced to build an augmented trade gravity model adapted to Xinjiang’s bilateral trade. From the empirical analysis of this model, it proposes that these three variables affect the Xinjiang’s bilateral trade positively. Whereas, geographic distance is found a significant factor influencing Xinjiang’s bilateral trade negatively. Then, the augmented trade gravity model analyzes the present trade situation between Xinjiang and its main trade partners in 2004 quantitatively. It indicates that Xinjiang cooperates with its most trade partners successfully in terms of present economic scale and developing level. Xinjiang has established successful trade partnership with Central Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, Western Europe, East Asia and South Asia. However, the foreign trade development with West Asia is much slower. Finally, some suggestions on developing Xinjiang's foreign trade are put forward.     

巴基斯坦的战略地位与中巴关系的未来

巴基斯坦在中国的周边环境和外交中具有重要的战略地位。作为中国通往西亚和中东的重要桥梁和南亚地区战略平衡和稳定的重要角色，巴基斯坦对中国具有独特的商业、安全和战略价值。中巴关系的未来发展一方面取决于政治外交、经济贸易、军事安全和人文交流这四个方面的内在发展，同时也受到印度和美国这两个外部因素的影响。巩固和发展中巴全天候战略合作伙伴关系是两国共同的战略选择。未来几年，双边贸易和投资将有较快的增长，两国的民间交流和文化关系有望得到较大的发展，在地区多边组织和机制中的合作也将进一步得到加强。     

The role of Russian gas in China’s energy supply strategy

China’s gas industry has witnessed a massive expansion and Chinese energy planners envisage a huge development of natural gas in China until 2030. This growth requires large-scale imports of gas in the coming two decades. This article discusses the role of Russian gas exports in China’s gas expansion. It analyses China’s natural gas growth in the coming decades, based on the projections of China’s domestic production capacity and the consequent necessity of large-scale pipeline gas imports from Russia, the Central Asian Republics, and Myanmar. Included in the projections are LNG imports from Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Australia, North America, and East Africa. The article explains how Russia is trying to avoid depending exclusively on the China market by using the options of gas exports to Korea and Japan. However, it concludes that Russia’s pipeline gas exports to China will play an important role in China’s energy supply plan in the coming decades.     

The Doha Round impasse: A graphical account

Several factors potentially responsible for the failure to conclude the Doha Round of multilateral trade negotiations are analyzed. A two-stage negotiation and ratification game between the “North” (industrialized countries) and the “South” (developing countries) is employed and collapses into a single diagram. The choice of negotiating agenda, principles, and currency of the Doha Round interact with domestic political factors in leading WTO members, the fast growth of exports prior to 2007, and pervasive unilateral trade reform to eliminate the “landing zone” for this particular multilateral negotiation. Recent emphasis on differences between developing countries and on Chinese WTO accession as independent causes of the impasse seems misplaced.     

高油价背景下韩国产业政策走向及对中国的启示

石油作为一种基础能源产品,目前约占全球能源消费的40%,它的价格变动牵动着经济的每个领域,2002年以来的国际高油价显出固定化特征,石油的供应趋紧将会是未来世界面临的问题,由于能源消费增长率高于经济增长率、单位GDP能耗较高;能源对石油的依赖水平高于发达国家;能源消费集中在制造业和运输业;能源的97%、石油的100%依赖于进口等问题的存在,对韩国提出了严峻挑战,给韩国的能源安全造成了极大压力。为此,韩国提出了能源自立、调整产业结构、从需求角度提高能效、从供给角度扩大新能源、再生能源等替代能源的开发和普及、大力支持环保型汽车的开发等产业政策目标。     

俄中石油天然气领域合作的几点思考

俄罗斯和中国分别为世界上最大的石油出口国和进口国之一 ,资源互补为双方能源合作提供了物质基础。但未来俄中两国在石油天然气领域的合作将在很大程度上取决于外部因素———世界能源市场的反常形势的影响。美国始终把控制能源放在国家利益的重要位置 ,在成功推倒萨达姆政权后 ,美国必将加强对中东的控制 ,从而控制世界能源的关键部分 ,获得未来世界石油市场中的主导权并主宰新世纪的石油价格。俄罗斯目前的主要战略问题是加强国家对油气田的控制 ,需要解决 3个根本任务 :1 在全球扩张的各种文明之间保持平稳 ;2 由国家控制自然资源的开采 ;3 国家加强对能源公司的控制。     

The structuration of Russia’s geo-economy under economic sanctions

In this article, we examine Russia’s geo-economy under the economic sanctions imposed by the EU, the USA and many other states since spring 2014, including restrictions on economic cooperation in areas such as trade, certain types of energy technology, access to credit, trade in arms, travel bans and asset freezing. We first examine Russia’s economic and geopolitical interests and the cognitive frames Russian policymakers use to weigh these diverse interests against each other. Second, we examine how Russian policymakers can further these interests given the effect of the sanctions on Russia’s geo-economy. We analyse constraints and opportunities along the resource geographic, financial and institutional dimensions of geo-economy. Regarding resources, the sanctions seriously hamper new greenfield projects in Russia’s emerging energy provinces. They impede the industry’s middle- to long-term prospects while some Russians perceive new opportunities for its domestically induced modernisation. Along the financial dimension, low oil prices since mid-2014 shape existing fossil fuels trade more than the sanctions, which have no impact on Russia’s arms exports. The combined effect of low oil prices and sanctions on Russia’s state budget, the financial sector and the rouble is severe. On the institutional dimension, Russia’s international standing suffers, but its domestic institutions are relatively resilient. Overall, we see Russia as part of an international structure where it can constitute itself as an autonomous geo-economic actor under favourable conditions including high oil prices and no sanctions.     

亚洲石油秩序的演绎:浅析三次石油危机对亚洲经济的影响

作为工业经济运行的血液,石油显然是一种战略商品,在经济发展和国际竞争中占有极其重要和独特的地位;而作为一种基础能源产品,石油目前约占全球能源消费的40%,它的价格变化牵动着经济领域的每一个方面,事实上,石油价格的巨幅波动、尤其是持续上涨一直被视为能够显著影响全球通胀和经济发展的一种负面因素。作为正在崛起的亚洲,其内部的石油供需矛盾尤显突出,既有的应对策略和合作框架已无法应对持续高油价的现实,因此,对于亚洲能源需求大国而言,建立能源合作机制,参与博弈来代替完全的市场定价接受者地位至关重要。     

Global interactions of China and India: Divergent paths of trade?

This article explores the global positions of China and India in merchandise trade. It first compares the integration models of China and India and, thereafter, examines the core factors that drive their trading relationships. With respect to their global trading partners, there are considerable differences in the influence of economic drivers of trade for China and India. Combined larger markets, similar consumer preferences, similar factor endowments and linguistic links enhance global exports from China. Alternatively, smaller market size, discrepancy in consumer demands, dissimilar factor endowments and combined stocks of foreign direct investments drive India’s global trade. The findings suggest that differences in the structure and demand of China vis-a-vis India dictate the divergence in the profile of their trade determinants. Such divergence in trade drivers, however, dissipates when taking into account Chinese and Indian partnerships on a regional basis – with East Asia, Middle East and North Africa (MENA), Latin America, European Union (EU), and Africa.     

中国在中东国家油气投资现状及前景

中国在中东地区的油气投资从本世纪初开始起步,早期的油田开发主要集中在阿曼、也门等石油资源并不富集的国家。2004年以后,随着中国对海外投资力度的加大,中国石油企业在中东的投资全面展开。中东国家正逐步成为中国企业能源开发、投资的热点地区之一。尽管受中东产油国特殊政治环境、法律条约等不确定因素影响,中国在中东国家的能源投资面临着不可避免的风险和障碍,但双方未来油气合作的前景依然广阔。     

动荡中孕育变革、低迷里不乏希望——2011年国际局势总结与2012年展望

2011年,“阿拉伯之春”改变了中东、北非地缘政治生态;美国加速全球战略调整,高调“重返亚太”;全球政治思潮空前激荡,世界仍面临形形色色的恐怖威胁;西方主要经济体表现低迷,新兴经济体强劲增长势头放缓。2012年,多个主要国家大选,世界政治版图会以何种方式重建值得关注;欧债危机继续,但在欧盟干预下有可能得到缓解;中东局势将是全球政治最大聚焦场所,未来大国关系因中东局势如何调整是事关全球地缘战略格局的新挑战。     

新地区主义视角下的中国东亚区域合作外交

在全球化时代的世界政治中,东亚新地区主义的发展为20世纪90年代以来的中国外交提供了广阔的舞台。当前,东亚区域合作外交正在成为中国外交中一个日益凸显的亮点。在新地区主义理论的视野中,中国提出新安全观,塑造负责任的大国形象;提出并倡导“开放的地区主义”思想,为新地区主义在亚太地区的发展开辟了道路;积极推进“10+3”合作,着力发展“10+1”;积极参与东亚区域合作的制度化建设,支持东盟为推进东亚区域一体化所作的努力;以“10+3”机制为契机,深化中、日、韩三国合作。在未来的东亚区域合作中,中国应在加快自身经济发展的同时,让东盟国家从中切实受益;继续坚定不移地树立负责任的大国形象,发挥大国作用;切实按照《南海各方行为宣言》所规定的各项原则处理同有关国家的海上领土争端和历史遗留问题;大力发展中、日、韩三国经贸合作,切实推进三国次区域自由贸易区建设;以建设性的合作精神发展中美关系。     

对当前中东局势演变的若干思考

当前中东局势动荡其实是中东国家迫切需要的政治和社会转型的一部分,对地区国家的政治改革和社会进步具有明显的推动作用,但阿拉伯世界作为整体被再次分化和削弱。旧的秩序被打破后,阿拉伯世界的传统意识形态面临新的时代挑战。西方试图将中东变革引入所谓民主化轨道,未来中东地区有可能形成多元政治架构,但其过程漫长,且中东各国政治进程的发展难以摆脱本地区历史、宗教、文化和社会现实的影响。我们应将美国西方的介入置于当前国际体系加速转型,世界政治、经济权势向非西方国家转移的大背景下加以观察。中东动荡短期内会分散美国关注重点,但不会改变其从中东总体收缩的态势,更不会动摇其战略东移步伐。     

近代以降埃及现代化的探索

作为中东伊斯兰世界具有重要影响力的国家之一,埃及在近代西方的冲击下成为西亚北非地区最早着手现代化的国家,亦是该地现代化程度较高的国家,埃及的现代化进程无疑是伊斯兰世界的一个缩影。本文通过梳理近代以来埃及在政治、经济和社会层面的现代化轨迹,总结其现代化进程所面临诸多挫折困难的原因、教训和启示,有利于我们认识政治民主化、法制化、经济市场化、工业化、社会多元化和公民化等现代化的本质和内涵,为中东地区国家现代化发展进程以及存在的诸多问题方面提供了经验和借鉴。