论俄罗斯核政策与核战略——兼用西方国际关系理论进行分析

运用西方国际关系理论对俄罗斯核政策与核战略演变进行分析研究,可以发现冷战高峰时期前苏联核政策与核战略是一个非常适宜于用现实主义分析的框架;冷战末期原苏联和冷战结束初期俄罗斯核政策与核战略是一个相当适宜于用自由制度主义分析的框架;而当前俄罗斯核政策与核战略则是一个基本适宜于用建构主义分析的框架.当前,俄罗斯在核力量建设目标上谋求与美国保持低水平的核均势.在核武器使用政策方面,俄罗斯从"不首先使用"转到"首先使用",再到"先发制人",并将核威慑作为施加压力和维持国际战略平衡的工具.俄核武库现在依然过于庞大,但在当前情况下有助于保持全球战略平衡.俄过于依赖核武器来维护其大国地位与自尊,将可能与美国陷入安全困境.俄防扩散政策有助于阻止核武器扩散和落入恐怖组织手中,但俄罗斯有时对商业利益超过对防扩散的考虑.     

美国对国际核秩序的侵蚀与弱化

美国是国际核秩序的主要创建者、参与者和受益者，维持稳定的国际核秩序符合美国的安全利益。但是，出于战争制胜型核战略、意识形态、盟友关系、地缘政治等方面的战略考量，美国在维持、巩固国际核秩序的过程中，也对国际核秩序造成侵蚀与弱化。美国仍然把核武器置于其国家安全战略的重要位置，重视战术核武器的作用，研发低当量核武器和钻地核弹，模糊了核武器与常规武器的界限，降低了核武器的使用门槛，侵蚀了核价值观。美国追求绝对核优势，部署全球导弹防御系统，研发全球即时打击系统，违反国际核规范与印度进行核能合作，弱化核禁忌等做法，不利于大国之间的战略稳定性，破坏了核规范。在防扩散领域，美国一贯奉行双重标准，缺乏全局观念，对他国进行安全威胁，刺激了核扩散。为维护国际核秩序，美国应从维护全球和平与稳定的长远考虑出发，降低核武器在国家安全战略中的作用，减少缩小核武器的使用范围，停止部署全球范围内的导弹防御系统，放弃防扩散的双重标准，推动核价值观、核规范和核不扩散体制向着更加完善的方向演进，保证国际核秩序平稳、有效运行。     

威慑与新世纪美国核战略

美国国防部的《核态势评估报告》于2002 年1 月正式出台, 这标志着在经过近10 年 的调整后, 新世纪的美国核战略已现雏形。新的核战略在坚持核威慑的同时, 将威慑的对象扩大并 且重点发生转移, 提出建立“新的三位一体”威慑力量体系, 加强常规和防御力量, 构建一种全方位 的威慑。新世纪美国核战略的调整必将对大国关系、战略态势和未来的国际安全格局产生重大影 响。     

论以色列核政策与核战略的特点和影响

以色列核政策与核战略的演变可分为3个阶段.当前其主要特点是发展"三位一体"的核力量结构,加强核武器的威慑力和实战能力;采取"核模糊"政策,既谋求核威慑,也规避"国际合法性"的问题;全力防止中东其他国家拥有核武器.以色列核政策与核战略的主要影响包括:拥有核武器有助于以色列的军事安全,但加剧了中东紧张局势;对国际核不扩散体系产生严重负面效用,阻碍地区核不扩散机制的建立;可能促使以色列的阿拉伯和伊斯兰邻国发展核武器,增加了中东地区发生核冲突的可能性.     

当前美国核战略的发展趋势及其对国际安全的影响

有核国家为实现其政治目标利用核威慑推行以核武器为载体的核战略, 服务于一国的国家安全战 略, 在国家的对外战略中占有极其重要的地位。作为世界头号核大国, 美国的核战略是美国国家安全战略的核心 支柱, 其发展趋势不仅与美国自身的安全密切相关, 更关乎整个国际社会的和平与稳定。从唯物主义辩证法的角 度看, 当前美国核战略的调整与发展对国际安全的影响主要是消极的, 同时也不乏一定的积极影响     

东北亚核不扩散面临的挑战

东北亚地区核武器扩散形势严峻。朝核危机加剧,核大国核军备竞赛势头难以遏止,对东北亚的安全与稳定构成严重挑战。美国强化核威慑战略、谋求绝对战略力量优势是地区核扩散形势加剧的主因。中国一贯反对核军备竞赛和核扩散行为,是维护东北亚地区和平与安全的坚定力量。     

美国核威慑战略的调整--《核态势审议》报告评析

20 0 2年 1月 8日美国国防部向国会提交的《核态势审议》报告 ,是美国面向 2 1世纪的新核威慑战略的蓝本。本文在介绍其基本内容的基础上 ,就美国调整其核战略的意图和本质进行了分析 ,认为美国核战略调整的真正目的是追求绝对军事优势。     

中美不对称核稳定与美国战略机会主义论析

中美两国安全关系在两国总体关系中扮演着重要的角色,研究中美之间的战略稳定关系,对于维护两国安全关系的稳定具有重要意义。中国的核威慑实力弱于美国,中美之间呈现出不同于传统战略稳定关系的不对称核稳定态势。中国对美国存在一定的核威慑能力,但有效性仍有差距和不足。这一差距容易使美国产生压制和削弱中国核报复能力的机会主义思想。实施限制损伤战略、发展导弹防御能力、进行战略反潜是美国对中国实施战略机会主义的主要行动。美国谋求削弱中国核报复能力、打破中美不对称核稳定的企图,与中国努力维持核威慑能力、维持中美不对称核稳定的行为形成了两股力量相持的态势。中国应重点提升核武器的质量,提高威慑信号的传递效能,以可信可靠的核威慑和核反击能力打消美国战略机会主义心态,维持两国间的战略稳定,特别是危机稳定性,筑牢遏制战争爆发的基础。     

美国核战略的“变”与“不变”——对奥巴马政府《核态势评估报告》的分析

2010年美国《核态势评估报告》是奥巴马政府在上两届政府对国家核战略两次调整的基础上进行的再调整。主要体现在:战略理念上以常规武器优势替代核打击威慑;战略原则上不对无核国家使用核武器;战略目标上转向以防范和应对核扩散和核恐怖主义为重点;战略手段上相对倚重国际协议和条约的制约力。然而,奥巴马政府的报告并未否认首先发动核打击的可能和承诺无条件"不对无核国家"用核,也未放弃重新研发新核武的立场,更没有放弃维持其全球独一无二核优势的目标。"报告"虽然具有某些积极意义,但难以解决当前面临的核扩散与核恐怖主义问题,也无法化解当前的伊核、朝核危机。     

法国核政策与核战略的特点与影响

从冷战到后冷战到“9·11”之后的三个时期，法国的核政策与核战略经历了三个阶段的演变。当前主要特点是：强调“有效反击”核威慑战略；使核打击力量向精干和精确方向转型；积极参加国际防核扩散进程，但仍保持一定的独立性；大力发展民用核能。法国核政策的演变有助于推动国际防核扩散和核裁军进程。但其扩展核威慑的范围和核武器的更新换代也给国际核不扩散带来负面影响。     

Voting in the United Nations security council

Recently, both within and outside of the U.N. there have been serious debates on certain proposals which are aimed at changing the voting structure of the Security Council. However, neither the proponents nor the opponents of these proposals provide any evidence whatsoever about consequences of the change. This paper has dealt with two critical areas: 1) the role of the veto in the functioning of the U.N. is analyzed and articulated and 2) recent proposals to change the voting structure of the Council are analyzed and their theoretical consequences are identified.     

后西方世界秩序下的核武器与核威慑

全球国际社会正处于一个关键的变化时期。长期以来占主导地位的西方秩序在如下几个方面面临包围:霸权分散、全球资本主义危机日益加重、全球共同面临恐怖主义、大规模移民以及环境变化等带来的各种威胁。英国脱欧、特朗普当选美国总统这些事件表明,作为世界秩序核心的英语世界,已失去其主导力量。目前的发展格局将朝着多元化的后西方世界秩序发展。在此秩序下,没有超级大国,只有大国,并且这些大国大多比较自我封闭,因此,并不存在真正意义上的争夺全球霸权的现象。文化差异将比意识形态差异更为重要。文章首先将这一秩序的轮廓做一大致勾勒,然后探讨这一秩序对未来几十年核武器与核威慑所要扮演的角色来说将意味着什么。最为关注的着眼点是,全球格局从全球层面向区域层面的转变以及复杂的核扩散与核威慑态势。     

The Escalation of Terrorism: Microlevel Violence and Interstate Conflict

Following the 9/11 attacks, transnational terrorism is seen as a potential catalyst for interstate war. Yet, the willingness of states to fight in response to terrorist violence is puzzling, given that the damage created by terrorism is relatively marginal. This raises the question: if terrorists are so weak and create such little damage, and interstate conflicts are so costly, why are states willing to initiate seemingly ruinous wars to fight terrorist groups? This essay proposes an explanation to address this question using current theoretical and empirical research on terrorism and interstate violence. Recent work indicates that while terrorists appear weak compared to states, terrorists can wield significant coercive power in smaller geographic areas. I argue that if these areas are strategically crucial to the government, such as areas with oil wells or mineral deposits, terrorist activity may precipitously weaken states relative to their rivals. I therefore argue that even if groups are only capable of killing at low levels, terrorism may lead to macrolevel power shifts, which may contribute to interstate violence.     

Mismatched Deterrents: Preventing the Use of Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons

The basic logic of graduated deterrence worked fairly well against the Soviet Union, as each level of aggression was to be deterred by a matching response. But this logic has now been undermined vis-à-vis future rogue state chemical and biological attacks by the spread of dual-use technologies that can be diverted to weapons, and by decisions of the United States and other democracies to forego possession of chemical or biological weapons. This article identifies some of the serious difficulties of alternative approaches to deterring chemical or biological attacks, ranging from nuclear escalation to a reliance on supposed American advantages in conventional weapons. Lumping chemical and biological weapons together with nuclear weapons into a new category of "weapons of mass destruction" is a very imperfect solution.     

You’ve Got to Know When to Fold ‘Em: International and Domestic Consequences of Capitulation, 1919–1999

This article explores the effect of acquiescing to compellent threats on the probability that a leader loses office and on the probability that he or she is targeted in a subsequent international crisis. Using a leader-specific punishment (LSP) model that corrects for the endogeneity between domestic and international politics, an analysis of over 9,000 observations during the period 1919–1999 suggests that backing down generally increases both the risk of becoming a target and the probability of losing office. Leaders who back down to coercive threats without a fight are almost twice as likely to become targets in subsequent crises and much more likely to lose office than those who do not. Democratic leaders are more at risk than their autocratic counterparts for loss of office and becoming targets if they acquiesce to coercive threats.     

Capability,Credibility, and Extended General Deterrence

Deterrence theory suggests that extended general deterrent threats are likely to be more effective when a potential challenger views them as capable and credible. When states sign formal defense pacts, they are making explicit extended general deterrent threats. Thus, the population of defense pacts allows us an opportunity to judge the efficacy of extended deterrent threats with different characteristics. We find that defense pacts with more capability and more credibility reduce the probability that a member state will be a target of a militarized dispute. We also find that states can affect the capability and credibility of their extended deterrent threats through alliance design. Members of defense pacts that include higher levels of peacetime military coordination are less likely to be attacked. This analysis provides support for deterrence theory in the context of extended general deterrence. It also provides evidence that should aid policymakers in designing security structures to meet their goals.     

再论核禁忌

“核禁忌”作为一种道德规范是具有感召力的。然而,“核禁忌”理论本身存在诸多矛盾和谬误之处。不使用核武器并没有成为一种普遍的禁止性规范,“核禁忌”也无法削弱核威慑的意义。从历史经验看,尽管自广岛、长崎之后核武器再也没有被使用过,但许多决策者都有过使用核武器的想法。只是根据理性分析、权衡利弊之后放弃了这一选择。而从政治心理学的层面分析,“核禁忌”理论显然夸大了单一规范在决策过程中的影响力。尤其在不同的利益相互冲突的场景下,国家安全往往具有压倒性的地位。事实上,冷战后的全球核态势发展并没有受到这种禁忌的束缚,却时而出现倾向于使用核武器的势头。近年来,美国正对其核武库进行现代化升级并积极研发新型核武器。以美俄为代表的核大国也通过调整自身的核战略为可能实施的核打击大开方便之门。似是而非的“核禁忌”实际上反而增强了核威慑的必要性。虽然“核禁忌”在推动一系列核军控条约以及扩大无核武器区的建设过程中起到了一定的作用,但单纯依靠观念的力量并不能引领人类走向无核世界。只要引发地区冲突和安全困境的政治根源得不到化解,核武器作为战争的工具之一就有可能被使用。而为了确保国家安全和战略稳定,核威慑的必要性在短期内仍然无可替代。     

Alliance Proximity and Effectiveness of Extended Deterrence

This article examines whether geographical proximity between defensive allies and a protégé increases the likelihood of successful extended general deterrence. I argue that proximate allies are better at making a credible deterrent threat because proximate allies are more willing and able to help alliance partners in times of crisis than distant ones. This claim is theorized by examining how geographical distance influences the international and domestic costs of alliance commitments. The empirical tests reveal that a potential aggressor is less likely to initiate a militarized dispute against a target with proximate defensive allies. Furthermore, I find that the power of proximate defensive allies is a more significant determinant of successful extended general deterrence than that of distance allies. Interestingly, I also find that the constraining effects of geographical distance on the effectiveness of extended general deterrence have been alleviated by advancements in military technologies throughout history.     

Reassurance: A Strategic Basis of U.S. Support for Israel

This article argues that Israel experiences a unique perception of the perils of anarchy that drives it to a strategic preference for disproportionately offensive action against rivals and enemies. Actions taken pursuant to that doctrine have caused serious inconvenience to U.S. foreign policy in the Mideast for over four decades. This article argues that by reassuring Israel, both diplomatically and with arms sales, that the United States is committed to its survival, the United States has obtained significant measures of strategic restraint on Israel's part. That restraint has brought significant benefit to the United States as it seeks to guarantee regular access to the vital resources of the Middle East. This article provides examples of both successful reassurance and reassurance denied to illustrate the argument that U.S. support produces tangible strategic benefits for the United States.     

Language choice and national development: A typology for Africa

The choice of an official language of politics and administration for African states is a good focal point from which to view other aspects of politics. A typology of language choice, based on whether the polity is linguistically homogeneous or heterogeneous; and on whether an indigenous or a non‐indigenous language is official, discriminates among four different language structures. Vignettes of language policy in Tanzania, Kenya, Senegal and Ethiopia elucidate each language structure.

Data is presented to show that different political tasks are associated with different language choices, and that the differential ramifications of language situation, for limiting group demands, inducing social mobilization and managing international dependency are, depending on language situation, important.